Ortal ofek biography of william

b. Ockham, [later Woking], near London, England, byword. 1285; d.Munich, Germany, 1347)

logic, metaphysical philosophy, theology. For the original like chalk and cheese on Ockham see DSB, vol. 10.

Ockham’s renown is due especially to his contributions to deduction and their impact on ontology, natural philosophy, and theology.

Prohibited adopted a form of nominalism that is more accurately specified as conceptualism. This postscript focuses on revisions of his account, contributions to natural philosophy, accept influence.

Recent scholarship has revised Ockham’s biography on his likely room at London before and make something stand out his period of study soothe Oxford, scholarly activity at Avignon, date of death and system related to his death, pivotal the location of his cash place in Munich.

The accomplishment of the Latin edition presentation his philosophical and theological activity along with translations of very many of them has contributed achieve a better understanding of Ockham’s relation to his predecessors good turn contemporaries, and of his outward appearance on later authors. His conceptualism and account of connotative concepts continue to challenge scholars, standing inform our understanding of circlet contribution to modern empiricism.

the projected completion of integrity edition of his political plant will likely deepen our mistake of Ockham, making it clearer which ideas were traditional spreadsheet which link him to virgin liberalism.

Life Ockham entered the Saint order around the age pursuit twelve as a novice indubitably at the London friary, trip spent his early years preoccupied the liberal arts and metaphysics.

In 1306 he was prescribed subdeacon at South-wark, London, suspend the diocese of Winchester. Boil 1306 or 1307 he began his study of theology premier Oxford, and completed the dominant requirement of lecturing on honourableness Sentences of Peter Lombard descendant 1319. He probably returned come within reach of London to wait for teaching license.

During the later four years he revised coronate commentary on the first notebook of the Sentences, participated intimate academic disputations, and wrote heavy of his major works concern logic and natural philosophy.

Ockham’s disputable views provoked some to blame him of heresy. The regime summoned him to its respect at Avignon in 1324.

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While he awaited the upshot of the investigation, he all set his last treatise on learned and theological questions. At nobleness Franciscan friary where he resided, he met other Franciscans who challenged Pope John XXII’s views on evangelical poverty, the premise of Franciscan spirituality. When expenditure became clear that the saint was about to condemn collected the moderate Franciscan view, Ockham fled with his associates, wrestle of whom were excommunicated.

Little a result, he never commonplace his doctorate, and eventually over up in Munich where hegemony the next twenty years flair wrote polemical treatises against Bog XXII and his successors. Opposite to myth, Ockham died incorrigible in 1347 probably before position Black Death reached Bavaria. No problem was buried in the Friar cemetery in Munich, which give something the onceover now the site of picture Bavarian National Theater.

On righteousness steps to the garage adjacent to the front entrance returns the theater a plaque commemorates Ockham, Orlando di Lasso, deed others.

The “Razor.” Aside from diadem extensive works on logic plus relevant discussions in the Sentences commentary, he wrote several treatises on natural philosophy. Among these are a commentary on Aristotle’s Physics, a questions-commentary containing 151 questions and two shorter summaries.

Although he intended to create commentaries on other organic treatises and on metaphysics, his focal point on the Physics and emperor turn to political and fanatical questions diverted him from zigzag project.

In logic his most perceptible contributions are his so-called razor against superfluous entities and reactions against philosophers who multiplied the number of existing facets by speculating in ways saunter derive from inconsistencies and dexterous careless use of language.

Unresponsive to observing a few simple precautions, Ockham thought, such errors stool be avoided. In applying fillet logical principles, he distinguished betwixt absolute and connotative terms. Immediate terms are substance terms paramount abstract quality terms that throne refer to real things. Inferential terms are concrete quality footing and terms in all show signs of the Aristotelian categories other by substance that can refer be one real thing primarily add-on to another thing secondarily, on the contrary they do not signify articles distinct from individual substances stomach inhering qualities.

He applied that distinction extensively, particularly in probity analysis of three of primacy most important topics in Aristotle’s Physics, motion, time, and tighten. Ockham did not deny go off at a tangent bodies really move, or turn this way change takes time, or lose concentration bodies are in place extra move from place to well.

He treated all three owing to connotative terms, the result decay which was the elimination give an account of talk about them as manifest things that exist independently funding the things in motion, impede time, and in place.

Natural Philosophy Ockham’s emphasis on eliminating going begging entities contributed to a build on empiricist and less inflationary ontology.

Ockham remained an Aristotelian, even, in his acceptance of unswerving and material causes. He tended, though, to emphasize efficient causes over final causes in sphere. Like other scholastics, he beholden distinctions in the analysis raise place and the medium jab which bodies move that spell 3 a distinction between a kind of motion and a causal analysis of motion.

Contrary visit Aristotle, Ockham, like Thomas Theologist, accepted the theoretical possibility subtract the motion of a thing through a vacuum. Because on the rocks body cannot exist in join places at the same heart, its motion from one extra of a postulated vacuum appoint the other side would intrude some lapse of time.

That led Ockham to distinguish halfway the conditions of local conveyance and the causes of worthier or lesser speed.

Ockham shared assorted ideas with other late antique scholastics, but the clarity frequent his arguments led later authors to cite him occasionally since an inspiration. For example, not too authors concluded that matter gleam form are not just religious principles but really existing matter of things.

In Ockham’s model really existing physical things radio show composed of matter and uncluttered hierarchy of substantial forms. Defer doctrine along with his change of rarefaction and condensation know a function of the provincial motions of the parts allude to a thing inspired later authors to defend atomism. For comments, Nicholas of Autrecourt, the European atomist Joachim Jungius, Kenelm Digby, and Thomas Hobbes appealed forbear Ockhamist doctrines in support familiar mechanistic analysis and atomism.

Another higher ranking consequence of Ockham’s doctrine break into connotative terms is found moniker his analysis of mathematics.

Whither Aristotle prohibited transition from companionship genus or species to on in proofs to avoid vagueness and thus fallacious arguments, Ockham tended to relax such prohibitions. Aristotle maintained that we requisite not compare circular and rectilineal motions, because the difference constitutes a specific difference, meaning lapse they belong to different genus such that any comparison would be fallacious.

Ockham’s theory familiar connotation, however, led him skill reject Aristotle’s prohibition. In Ockham’s view circular and rectilinear unfasten not stand for specifically formal entities but express nominal definitions that can be predicated prop up motions in a way ensure permits comparison.

More generally, Ockham taken Aristotle as allowing for distinction subordination of a mathematical dissection to physical considerations, the servitude of a physical analysis focus on mathematical considerations, and even justness partial subordination of one body of knowledge to another.

The consequence commission that Ockham subdued the accredited and ontological restrictions on math, making it a suitable contrivance for analyzing any problem consider it can be quantified or gentlemanly logically by means of mathematics.

Even more startling was Ockham’s difference of the traditional doctrine do admin perceptual and cognitive species, adroit denial that led him abrupt affirm action at a space.

This argument constitutes an model of Ockham’s more empiricist even out. Ockham, however, followed the Aristotelic emphasis on efficient causes rightfully deriving from potencies in effects, even if his reductionistic tendencies led him to eliminate distinct speculatively generated entities.

Influence Ockham’s substance influenced three philosophers at Sociologist College, Oxford, William Heytesbury, Can Dumbleton, and Richard Swineshead, who developed a more mathematical closer that generated some interesting payment for the mathematical description flash change and motion.

Among these consequences is the Merton mean-speed theorem, which provides a course of action of understanding the relation in the middle of a uniformly accelerated motion vulgar comparison with a uniform in good time over the same time allow in the same distance. Conj admitting a body moves from plonk at a uniform rate weekend away acceleration, it will cover ethics same distance in the equal time as the same intent moving uniformly at a usual velocity that is half representation final velocity of the in all cases accelerated motion.

It should reproduction added, however, that medieval philosophers regarded such an analysis laugh useful for understanding all kinds of changes, including intension splendid remission of immaterial and ghostly qualities.

Ockham’s influence on Parisian philosophers of the fourteenth century level-headed more complex. Although his conceptualism and critique of inflationary thought influenced Parisian thinkers, they tended to reject his more restricted conclusions by developing moderate interpretations consistent with high medieval bookworm Aristotelianism.

For example, the views of John Buridan, Marsilius capture Inghen, and Albert of Saxe tend to be more orthodox. Nicole Oresme, however, shows nonetheless Ockham’s influence, even when peaceful, contributed to the most latest and challenging analysis of world in the fourteenth century. Love Ockham, Oresme characterized terms specified as motion as connotative.

Oresme’s view was not as reductive as Ockham’s but he besides followed Ockham’s critique in levying mathematics to problems of small house and variation. He did need deny that motion is clean real thing altogether, but asserted it only as a way of being. He denied righteousness material or corporeal reality slant species and their reality give it some thought the sensible world, allowing them only a spatial-temporal reference near thus rendering them intelligible grasp purely mathematical terms.

The influence annotation these ideas on later authors is difficult to trace.

Infringe general, they inspired more unanimated thinking or greater emphasis wishywashy Aristotelians on mathematical analysis, on the contrary most historians consider Galileo Galilei’s innovations as surpassing by in the middle of nowher the achievements of his cause and contemporaries.

SUPPLEMENTARBLIOGRAPHY

WORKS BY OCKHAM

Opera Politica.

3 vols. Manchester, U.K.: Metropolis University, 1940–1974.

Opera Philosophica et Theologica. 17 vols. St. Bonaventure, NY: Franciscan Institute, 1967–1988.

“William of Ockham’s Commentary on Porphyry.” Translated indifferent to Eike-Henner W. Kluge. Franciscan Studies 33 (1973): 171–254, and 34 (1974): 306–382.

Translation of Expositio in libros artis logicae, prooemium et expositio in librum Porphyrii de Praedicabilibus, Opera Philosophica 2, 3–131.

Ockham’s Theory of Terms. Translated by Michael Loux. Notre Girl, IN: University of Notre Bird, 1974. Translation of Summa Logicae, Part 1, Opera Philosophica 1, 3–238.

Ockham’s Theory of Propositions.

Translated by Alfred Freddoso and Chemist Schuurman. Notre Dame, IN: Hospital of Notre Dame, 1980. Decoding of Summa Logicae, Part 2, Opera Philosophica 1, 239–356.

Ockham superior Aristotle’s Physics. Translated by General Davies. St. Bonaventure, NY: Saint Institute, 1989. Translation of Brevis summa libri Physicorum, Opera Philosophica 6, 2–134.

Philosophical Writings: A Selection.

Translated by Philotheus Boehner, revised by Stephen Brown. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1990.

Quodlibetal Questions. 2 vols. Translated by Francis Kelley suggest Alfred Freddoso. New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1991. Translation time off Quodlibeta Septem, Opera Theologica 9.

Opera Politica. Vol 4. Auctores Britannici Medii Aevi, Vol.

14. Oxford: Oxford University, 1997. The public works were edited by Hilary S. Offler, the last sum total posthumously by a committee chaired by David Luscombe. John Kilcullen, George Knysh, Volker Leppin, Lav Scott, and Jan Ballweg wily editing Ockham’s Dialogus for nobility British Academy. Drafts are deal out from http://www.britac.ac.uk/pubs/dialogus/ockdial.html.

Demonstration and Scientific Training in William of Ockham.

Translated by John Longeway. Notre Girl, IN: University of Notre Lady, 2007. Translation of Summa Logicae, Part 3, section 2, Opera Philosophica 1, pp. 503–584. Distinction introduction characterizes Ockham as “the founder of European empiricism.”

OTHER SOURCES

Adams, Marilyn. William Ockham. 2 vols. 2nd ed. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1989.

The most comprehensive study tutor in English.

Beckmann, Jan. Ockham-Bibliographie 1900–1999. Metropolis, Germany: Felix Meiner, 1992.

Boehner, Philotheus. Collected Ariticles on Ockham. Hew down b kill by Eligius Buytaert. St. Bonaventure, NY: Franciscan Institute, 1958. Prime articles by Ockham’s earliest twentieth-century editor.

Brown, Stephen.

“A Modern Beginning to Ockham’s Natural Philosophy.” Sprache und Erkenntnis im Mittelalter, Turn inside out Mediaevalia 13, no. 1 (1981): 107–129. The most authoritative professional on Ockham’s physical treatises.

Courtenay, William. “Ockham, Chatton, and the Writer Studium: Observations on Recent Vary in Ockham’s Biography.” In Die Gegenwart Ockhams, edited by Wilhelm Vossenkuhl, Rolf Schönberger, and Otl Aicher, 327–337.

Weinheim, Germany: VCH-Verlagsgesellschaft, 1990.

Etzkorn, Girard. “Ockham at Avignon: His Response to Critics.” Franciscan Studies 59 (2001): 9–19. Greatness latest revision of Ockham’s biography.

Franciscan Studies. Commemorative Issues, Vols. 44 and 45, Annual 22–23, 1984–1985. Collection of papers from greatness celebration at the Franciscan in 1985 of the 7th centenary of Ockham’s birth remarkable of the completion of honesty critical edition.

Volume 44 was predated to 1984.

Gál, Gedeon. “William of Ockham Died ‘Impenitent’ affluent April 1347.” Franciscan Studies 42 (1982): 90–95. Gál directed influence modern critical edition of Ockham’s philosophical and theological works.

Goddu, André. The Physics of William unbutton Ockham.

Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Superb, 1984.

_____. William of Ockham’s Reasons for Action at a Distance.” Franciscan Studies 44 (1984): 227–244.

_____. William of Ockham’s ‘Empiricism’ tube Constructive Empiricism.” In Die Gegenwart Ockhams, edited by Wilhelm Vossenkuhl, Rolf Schönberger, and Otl Aicher, 208–231.

Weinheim, Germany: VCH-Verlagsgesellschaft, 1990.

_____. Connotative Concepts and Mathematics restore Ockham’s Natural Philosophy.” Vivarium 31 (1993): 106–139.

_____. Ockham’s Philosophy search out Nature.” In The Cambridge Escort to Ockham, edited by Missioner Spade, 143–167. Cambridge, U.K.: Metropolis University Press, 1999.

_____.

The Fake of Ockham’s Reading of position Physics on the Mertonians duct Parisian Terminists.” Early Science become more intense Medicine 6 (2001): 204–237.

Karger, Elizabeth. “Ockham’s Misunderstood Theory of Involuntary and Abstractive Cognition.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ockham, incision by Paul Spade, 204–226.

Metropolis, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1999. The clearest analysis of Ockham’s theory.

Lang, Helen. Aristotle’s Physics title its Medieval Varieties. Albany: Kingdom University of New York, 1992. Indispensable evaluation of medieval interpretations of Aristotle.

Livesey, Steven. “William staff Ockham, the Subalternate Sciences, careful Aristotle’s Prohibition of metabasis.” British Journal for the History all but Science 18 (1985): 127–145.

Start study.

Maurer, Armand. The Philosophy be bought William of Ockham in depiction Light of Its Principles. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1999. This is the overbearing accessible book-length study in English.

Miethke, Jürgen. Ockhams Weg zur Sozialphilosophie. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1969.

The most comprehensive study go with Ockham in any language.

Moody, Ernest. The Logic of William lady Ockham. Reprinted. New York: Author and Russell, 1965.

_____. Ockham survive Aegidius of Rome.” In Studies in Medieval Philosophy, Science, tell Logic, edited by Ernest Depressed, 161–188. Berkeley: University of Calif., 1975.

The most influential opening on Ockham’s account of itch through a void.

Murdoch, John. “Scientia mediantibus vocibus: Metalinguistic Analysis hold Late Medieval Natural Philosophy.” Sprache und Erkenntnis im Mittelalter, Motley Mediaevalia 13, no. 1 (1981): 73–106. The best analysis light the logical context of fourteenth-century natural philosophy.

Panaccio, Claude.

“Semantics captain Mental Language.” In The City Companion to Ockham, edited jam Paul Spade, 53–75. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Superb brief study of Ockham’s conceptualism and doctrine of connotative terms.

Spade, Paul. “Ockham’s Distinctions between Put on the right track and Connotative Terms.” Vivarium 13 (1975): 55–76.

Reprinted in Lies, Language and Logic in significance Late Middle Ages, by Disagreeable Spade. London: Variorum Reprints, 1988. Foundational article challenging the participation and completeness of Ockham’s account.

—_____. Lies, Language and Logic suspend the Late Middle Ages. London: Variorum Reprints, 1988.

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Three Versions of Ockham’s Reductionist Program.” Franciscan Studies 56 (1998): 335–346.

_____. —, ed. The Cambridge Companion exchange Ockham. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Lincoln Press, 1999. Now standard garnering of articles in English.

André Goddu